The present invention relates to reducing the risk, and optimally preventing, carcinogenesis through modification of diet. In particular, ingestion of calcium results in reduced risk of recurrence of colorectal adenomas.
Dietary patterns have repeatedly been associated with the risk of colorectal neoplasia: a diet rich in vegetables and fruits is associated with a lower risk, while intake of animal fat and red meat seems to increase risk (Sandler, Gastroenterology Clinics NA, 25:717-735, 1996). The underlying mechanisms are not clear, but may in part be due to alterations in bile acids, which are carcinogenic in animal models (Nagengast et al., Eur. J. Cancer, 1995, 31A:1067-70).
Newmark and colleagues (Newmark et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 1984, 72:1323-1325) proposed that calcium binds bile acids in the bowel lumen, inhibiting their proliferative and carcinogenic effects. In support of this hypothesis, animal studies have indicated a protective effect of dietary calcium on bile-induced mucosal damage and experimental bowel carcinogenesis (Pence, Mut. Res., 1993, 290:87-95; Pence, Carcinogenesis, 1988, 9:187-190). However, human epidemiological research has been inconsistent; in some studies a decreased risk of colorectal cancer has been associated with calcium intake, while in others, no association was found (Blergsma-Kadijk et al., Epidemiology, 1996, 7:590-597; Martinez and Willett, Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., 1998, 7:163-168). Similarly mixed results have been reported regarding large bowel adenomas, likely precursors for most colorectal cancers (Morson et al., Cancer Surv., 1983, 2:451-477).
The present invention advantageously provides a method for reducing a risk of carcinogenesis in a subject comprising administering a dose of calcium to the subject that is effective to reduce carcinogenesis. Particularly provided is a method for reducing the risk of recurrence of colorectal adenomas, comprising administering a dose of calcium carbonate effective to reduce the risk of colorectal adenomas.
In its broadest aspect, the present invention provides a method for reducing a risk of carcinogenesis in a subject comprising administering a dose of calcium to the subject that is effective to reduce carcinogenesis. Preferably, the carcinogenesis is development of a colorectal adenoma, e.g., a recurrence of an adenoma. Thus, in a specific embodiment, the method provides for reducing the risk of recurrence of colorectal adenomas, comprising administering a dose of calcium carbonate effective to reduce the risk of colorectal adenomas.
More particularly, the present invention is able to reduce the risk ratio of adenoma recurrence, resulting in a risk ratio of 0.74 to 0.98, e.g., about 0.85, with a 95% confidence interval. Indeed, as demonstrated in the Example, infra, the risk ratio of at least one adenoma was by 0.67 to 0.99, e.g., about 0.81, with a 95% confidence interval.
The effective dose of elemental calcium can be readily established. In particular, a dose ranging from about 1 mg/kg/day to about 100 mg/kg/day, preferably from about 1 mg/kg/day to about 50 mg/kg/day, and more preferably about 20 mg/kg twice a day, can be used. In a specific embodiment, the dose of elemental calcium is about 1200 mg twice a day.
Elemental calcium can be derived from many sources. Usually, it is found in a salt. Examples of calcium sources include, but are by no means limited to, calcium carbonate, calcium citrate, calcium hydroxide, calcium phosphate (including tricalcium phosphate and dicalcium phosphate), calcium chlorophosphate, or combinations thereof. In a specific embodiment, the calcium is provided as calcium carbonate.
When calcium carbonate is administered to the subject, a preferred dose is from about 20 to about 80 mg/kg twice a day, and more preferably about 40 mg/kg twice a day. In a specific embodiment, the dose is about 3000 mg twice a day.
The present invention is based, in part, on the discovery that 1200 mg of elemental calcium (supplied in 3000 mg of calcium carbonate) administered twice daily resulted in decreased risk of recurrent colorectal adenomas in patients with a history of colorectal adenomas. In particular, 930 patients with a recent history of colorectal adenomas were randomized to calcium carbonate (3 gm daily; 1,200 mg elemental calcium) or placebo, with follow-up colonoscopies one and four years after the qualifying examination. The main analysis focused on new adenomas found after the first follow-up endoscopy, up to (and including) the second follow-up examination. Risk ratios of at least one recurrent adenoma and ratios of the average numbers of adenomas and 95% confidence intervals were calculated as measures of effect.
As a result of this treatment protocol, there was a lower risk of recurrent adenomas in subjects randomized to calcium. Among the 913 subjects who had at least one study examination, the adjusted risk ratio of any adenoma recurrence was 0.85 (95% confidence interval 0.74 to 0.98; P=0.03). 832 patients completed both follow-up examinations and so were included in the main analysis; the adjusted risk ratio of at least one adenoma was 0.81 (95% confidence interval 0.67 to 0.99; P=0.04); the adjusted ratio of the average numbers of adenomas was 0.76 (95% confidence interval 0.60 to 0.96; P=0.02). The effect of calcium was independent of initial dietary fat and calcium intake. No toxicity was associated with supplementation. These findings indicate that calcium supplementation can prevent a proportion of colorectal adenomas, precursors of most colorectal cancers.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9ccarcinogenesisxe2x80x9d refers to the development of a carcinoma, particularly an adenocarcinoma of the colon or rectum. In a specific embodiment, carcinogenesis refers to development of an adenoma. In more specific embodiment, carcinogenesis refers to recurrent adenomas.
In a specific embodiment, the term xe2x80x9caboutxe2x80x9d or xe2x80x9capproximatelyxe2x80x9d means within 20%, preferably within 10%, and more preferably within 5% of a given value or range.
The various elements of the invention are further elaborated in the following sections concerning carcinomas, calcium sources, formulations, and administration. These sections are provided for the sake of convenience, and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention.
A carcinoma is malignant new growth that arises from epithelium, found in skin or, more commonly, the lining of body organs, for example: breast, prostate, lung, stomach or bowel. Carcinomas tend to infiltrate into adjacent tissue and spread (metastasize) to distant organs, for example: to bone, liver, lung or the brain. An adenocarcinoma is a form of cancer that involves cells from the lining of the walls of many different organs of the body. Colorectal cancer is a type of adenocarcinoma. While the present invention focuses on carcinogenesis of the lower intestinal tract, it is believed to impact carcinogenesis broadly. Thus, though the application focuses on carcinogenesis in colorectal cancer (or carcinoma or adenocarcinoma), it should be generally considered as relating to carcinogenesis in general.
Colorectal cancer is a malignancy that arises from the lining of either the colon or the rectum. Cancers of the large intestine are the second most common form of cancer found in males and females. Symptoms include rectal bleeding, occult blood in stools, bowel obstruction and weight loss. Treatment is based largely on the extent of cancer penetration into the intestinal wall. Surgical cures are possible if the malignancy is confined to the intestine. The risk can be reduced when following a diet which is low in fat and high in fiber.
As used herein, a polyp is a growth, usually benign, protruding from a mucous membrane. Colorectal polyps can be precursors to carcinomas.
Surgery is the primary method of treatment for polyp removal and the treatment of colorectal cancer. The extent of surgery and the need for follow-up treatment afterwards (with chemotherapy or radiation) depends on the stage of the disease as well as its locationxe2x80x94whether it is in the colon or rectum. Information regarding staging and treatment provided separately for each disease below.
There are three slightly different systems for staging colon cancer: Dukes, Astler-Coller and AJC/TNM. The list below describes each stage using the AJC/TNM system with the corresponding stage for Dukes and Astler-Coller noted afterward, as well as the recommendation for treatment in addition to surgery.
Stage O: Carcinoma in situ. Cancer is confined to the inner layer of the colon. There is no corresponding stage for Dukes or Astler-Coller. No treatment after surgery or polypectomy. The survival rate approaches 100 percent.
Stage I: Cancer has grown through the inner lining of the colon and underlying layers, but has not penetrated beyond the colon wall into adjoining tissue. This stage corresponds to Dukes Stage A and Astler-Coller Stages A and B1. No treatment after surgery. The survival rate is about 90 percent.
Stage II: Cancer has grown entirely through the colon wall but hasn""t spread to nearby lymph nodes. The stage corresponds to Dukes Stage B and to Astler-Coller Stages B2 and B3. Treatment is usually surgery alone. In some cases, chemotherapy may be offered. The survival rate is about 70 percent.
Stage III: Cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes but not to other parts of the body. The stage corresponds to Dukes Stage C and to Astler-Coller Stages C1, C2 and C3. After surgery, treatment with chemotherapy is recommended. The survival rate is 35 percent to 65 percent.
Stage IV: Cancer has spread to distant organs. Most common sites for metastasis are the liver, lungs and brain. There is no corresponding Dukes stage; the Astler-Coller Stage is D. Treatment after surgery consists of chemotherapy, radiation therapy or both to relieve symptoms of advanced cancer. Occasionally, surgery can be performed on the metastasis. The survival rate is 8 percent.
As with colon cancer, treatment for rectal cancer depends on the stage of the disease.
Stage O: Cancer has not grown beyond the rectal lining. There is no treatment after surgery, and the survival rate is greater than 90 percent.
Stage I: Cancer has penetrated the inner rectal lines, but not beyond. Chemotherapy and radiation is not usually recommended after surgery. The survival rate is about 88 percent.
Stage II: Cancer has penetrated through the rectal wall but hasn""t spread to the lymph nodes. Treatment often includes surgery combined with chemotherapy and radiation. The survival rate is 65 percent to 75 percent.
Stage III: Cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes but not to other parts of the body. Surgery is usually combined with chemotherapy and radiation which can be given either before or after the operation. The survival rate is between 35 and 55 percent.
Stage IV: Cancer has spread to distant organs. Most common sites for metastasis is the liver. The goal of surgery is not to cure cancer but to relieve symptoms and prevent blockage of the rectum. Chemotherapy, radiation or both may be recommended to relieve symptoms. The survival rate is 5 percent. In some cases, isolated metastasis, particularly to the liver, can be surgically removed, resulting in improved survival.
Treatment of rectal cancer often combines surgery with chemotherapy and radiation, depending on the stage of the disease (see colon cancer treatment for discussion of these treatments). Sometimes surgery is performed first, and on other occasions, chemoradiation is given prior to surgery. A number different surgical procedures are available to treat rectal cancer, the choice depending on the location and stage of the cancer. These include polypectomy (removal of Stage 0 tumors), local excision, low anterior resection, abdominoperineal resection; and pelvic exenteration; which is only rarely performed.
Either after or before surgery, radiation therapy may be recommended for rectal cancer. When given before surgery, the tumor can be shrunk, often making removal easier. Radiation therapy is rarely recommended for cancer of the colon. Treatment usually is done on an outpatient basis and involves five sessions per week for approximately six weeks. Radiation treatment can cause a number of side effects, including upset stomach, diarrhea, fatigue and skin irritation, which subside once treatment ends.
Treatment with anti-cancer drugs is recommended when the cancer is in the lymph nodes. For rectal cancer, chemotherapy is combined with radiation and often given to stage II cancers also. When used with preoperative radiation, part of the chemotherapy is given before surgery and the rest given after surgery. The most common drugs used are a combination of Fluorouracil (5-FU) and levamisole or leucovorin.
It is known that not all calcium sources are equal in terms of bioavailability and absorption. The preferred form is calcium carbonate, which contains the highest amount of absorbable calcium, 40% elemental calcium. Calcium carbonate is cheap, readily available and easily compacted to make a tablet with greater calcium content. Because of the higher elemental calcium content of calcium carbonate, a tablet can be made smaller and can contain a higher concentration of available calcium. Since the tablet can be smaller, it is easier to swallow, especially for older people.
Other sources of calcium for pharmaceutical or supplemental use are calcium gluconate, calcium lactate, dibasic calcium phosphate and calcium citrate and the like. Elemental calcium, is preferably supplied in the range of about 400 and 10,000 mg. The calcium salt content is preferably within the range of 1,000 mg to 25,000 mg, advantageously 1,500 to 3,000 mg.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,741,471 provides a process for the precipitation of discrete prismatic calcium carbonate particles by carbonation of aqueous calcium hydroxide containing a saccharide or polysaccharide, which is useful, inter alia, in pharmaceutical applications.
In addition to a calcium salt, a composition for administration in accordance with the invention may contain trace or substantial amounts of other active ingredients. For example, Vitamin D, critical in the role of calcium absorption, can be added in the range between 50 I.U., and 800 I.U. The preferred range is between 200 to 400 I.U.
Preferably one or more of boron, copper, magnesium, manganese and zinc is supplied. The mineral preferably comprises a boron compound or a combination of a boron compound with other minerals. The anions for the minerals can be oxide, phosphate, chloride, sulfate, nitrate, or the like.
The preferred amounts of the mineral supplements are:
boron compound from 50 to 3,000 micrograms;
copper compound from 0.10 to 5.0 mg;
magnesium compound from 10 to 150 mg;
manganese compound from 3 to 10 mg; and,
zinc compound from 3 to 25 mg.
As a general statement, the total weight of the dosage form is preferably less than about 5.0 g. In the preferred embodiment (calcium carbonate), the dosage form is equal to or less than about 3.0 g.
The present formulation may also include preservatives such as benzoic acid and salts thereof, butylated hydroxyanisole, butylated hydroxytoluene, sulfur dioxide and the like; food grade emulsifiers such as lecithin, mono- and diglycerides of long chain fatty acids, and propylene glycol esters; and pharmaceutically acceptable carriers and excipients, which are known to those skilled in the art.
The phrase xe2x80x9cpharmaceutically acceptablexe2x80x9d refers to molecular entities and compositions that are physiologically tolerable and do not typically produce an allergic or similar untoward reaction, such as gastric upset, dizziness and the like, when administered to a human. Preferably, as used herein, the term xe2x80x9cpharmaceutically acceptablexe2x80x9d means approved by a regulatory agency of the Federal or a state government or listed in the U.S. Pharmacopeia or other generally recognized pharmacopeia for use in animals, and more particularly in humans. The term xe2x80x9ccarrierxe2x80x9d refers to a diluent, adjuvant, excipient, or vehicle with which the compound is administered. Such pharmaceutical carriers can be sterile liquids, such as water and oils, including those of petroleum, animal, vegetable or synthetic origin, such as peanut oil, soybean oil, mineral oil, sesame oil and the like. Water or aqueous solution saline solutions and aqueous dextrose and glycerol solutions are preferably employed as carriers, particularly for injectable solutions. Suitable pharmaceutical carriers are described in xe2x80x9cRemington""s Pharmaceutical Sciencesxe2x80x9d by E. W. Martin.
The phrase xe2x80x9ctherapeutically effective amountxe2x80x9d or xe2x80x9cdose . . . that is effectivexe2x80x9d is used herein to mean a dose or an amount sufficient to reduce the risk of carcinogenesis, such as but not limited to polyp formation, recurrent adenoma, and development of a carcinoma. Preferably, the risk is reduced by a statistically significant amount, e.g., with an acceptable value for xe2x80x9cpxe2x80x9d. For example, the risk of carcinogenesis may be reduced by at least about 10 percent, preferably by at least 25 percent, more preferably by at least 50 percent, and most preferably completely. Alternatively, a therapeutically effective amount is sufficient to cause an improvement in a clinically significant condition in the host, such as recurrent adenoma.
The present formulation may be in oral solid dosage form for example a tablet, capsule, lozenger, chewable tablet or bulk powder. The tablet, capsule or lozenger may contain suitable binders, lubricants, diluents, disintegrating agents, coloring agents, flavoring agents, flow-inducing agents and melting agents which are known to those skilled in the art.
The present formulation may also be in a liquid dosage form which includes an emulsion and suspension. The liquid dosage form may contain, for example, suitable solvents, preservatives, emulsifying agents, suspending agents, diluents, sweeteners, melting agents, and coloring and flavoring agents, which are known to one skilled in the art.
It is preferred to administer the composition of the present invention in the form of tablets; however, any form of oral administration can be used.
The solid dosage form may have a film coating to protect the ingredients from moisture, oxygen or light and to mask any undesirable taste or appearance. Suitable coating agents include cellulose, hydroxy-propylmethylcellulose, cellulose phthalate, methacryulic copolymer and shellac. An enteric coating may be employed, as well as coloring agents for identification and, if desired, the solid form may be polished with a waxy composition, such as carnuba wax.
For example, calcium supplement compressed tablets are well known to the art and commonly contain tricalcium phosphate or a mixture thereof with dicalcium phosphate, a binder such as microcrystalline cellulose, a disintegrant such as sodium starch glycolate or croscarmellose sodium, and a lubricant such as magnesium stearate (see, for example, Kanig et al, International Application Published Under The Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), International Publication No. WO 81/02521, published Sep. 17, 198 1, and Gerard European Patent Application Publication No. 54333, published Jun. 23, 1982). The calcium phosphate can be of commercial compacted grade. A suitable compacted grade of tricalcium phosphate is marketed by Stauffer Chemical Company of Westport, Conn. U.S.A. as TRI-TAB.RTM. containing about 37.5% elemental calcium by weight.
Various calcium formulations have been described in patents. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,817,351 describes liquid beverages for supplementation of dietary calcium. The beverages of this invention use calcium glycerophosphate as the source of calcium, acidulants, vitamin C and optionally, vitamin D. U.S. Pat. No. 5,780,081 discloses a fortified foodstuff comprising a fortifying amount of a complex of calcium and a hydrolyzed polysaccharide. U.S. Pat. No. 5,766,330 discloses a method for forming a dry powder of insoluble calcium salts and protein from an aqueous composition, e.g., for use in food supplements. U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,222 provides a calcium supplement in solid form contains calcium glycerophosphate, vitamin D and vitamin C. U.S. Pat. No. 5,468,506 provides a concentrated bioavailable calcium source containing a) soluble calcium; b) an edible acid component; and c) sugar. U.S. Pat. No. 4,851,221 provides a liquid calcium supplementation from readily soluble mixtures of citric acid and one or more calcium compounds selected from the group consisting of calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate and calcium oxide, which may be used, for example, as a powder for making an xe2x80x9cinstantxe2x80x9d beverage. U.S. Pat. No. 4,781,925 discloses a calcium supplement compressed tablet containing tricalcium phosphate with croscarmellose sodium as a disintegrant and sodium lauryl sulfate.
Any dosage regiment that provides an therapeutically effective amount of elemental calcium can be used in the practice of the invention. As noted above, preferably the calcium is administered orally, but any acceptable route of administration can be employed. Similarly, in a specific embodiment, infra, the calcium compound is administered twice daily, preferably with a meal. However, the daily dosage can be provided once a day, twice daily, three times daily, with every meal, etc. Alternatively, a sustained release dosage form can be used, which may provide for administration of a composition comprising the calcium compound less frequently than daily.
The following example is for illustrative purposes and is not to be construed as limiting the invention.